Bioassays are used to probe for the presence and/or the quantity of a target material in a biological sample. In surface based assays, the target amount is quantified by capturing it on a solid support and then detecting it. One example of a surface-based assay is a DNA microarray. The use of DNA microarrays has become widely adopted in the study of gene expression and genotyping due to the ability to monitor large numbers of genes simultaneously (Schena et al., Science 270:467-470 (1995); Pollack et al., Nat. Genet. 23:41-46 (1999)). More than 100,000 different probe sequences can be bound to distinct spatial locations across the microarray surface, each spot corresponding to a single gene (Schena et al., Tibtech 16:301-306 (1998)). When a fluorescent-labeled DNA target sample is placed over the surface of the array, individual DNA strands hybridize to complementary strands within each array spot. The level of fluorescence detected quantifies the number of copies bound to the array surface and therefore the relative presence of each gene, while the location of each spot determines the gene identity. Using arrays, it is theoretically possible to simultaneously monitor the expression of all genes in the human genome. This is an extremely powerful technique, with applications spanning all areas of genetics. (For some examples, see the Chipping Forecast supplement to Nature Genetics 21 (1999)). Arrays can also be fabricated using other binding moieties such as antibodies, proteins, haptens or aptamers, in order to facilitate a wide variety of bioassays in array format.
Other surface-based assays include microtitre plate-based ELISAs in which the bottom of each well is coated with a different antibody. A protein sample is then added to each well along with a fluorescent-labeled secondary antibody for each protein. Target proteins are captured on the surface of each well and secondarily labeled with a fluorophore. The fluorescence intensity at the bottom of each well is used to quantify the amount of each target molecule in the sample. Similarly, antibodies or DNA can be bound to a microsphere such as a polymer bead and assayed as described above. Once again, each of these assay formats is amenable for use with a plurality of binding moieties as described for arrays.
Other bioassays are of use in the fields of proteomics, and the like. For example, cell function, both normal and pathologic, depends, in part, on the genes expressed by the cell (i.e., gene function). Gene expression has both qualitative and quantitative aspects. That is, cells may differ both in terms of the particular genes expressed and in terms of the relative level of expression of the same gene. Differential gene expression is manifested, for example, by differences in the expression of proteins encoded by the gene, or in post-translational modifications of expressed proteins. For example, proteins can be decorated with carbohydrates or phosphate groups, or they can be processed through peptide cleavage. Thus, at the biochemical level, a cell represents a complex mixture of organic biomolecules.
One goal of functional genomics (“proteomics”) is the identification and characterization of organic biomolecules that are differentially expressed between cell types. By comparing expression, one can identify molecules that may be responsible for a particular pathologic activity of a cell. For example, identifying a protein that is expressed in cancer cells but not in normal cells is useful for diagnosis and, ultimately, for drug discovery and treatment of the pathology. Upon completion of the Human Genome Project, all the human genes will have been cloned, sequenced and organized in databases. In this “post-genome” world, the ability to identify differentially expressed proteins will lead, in turn, to the identification of the genes that encode them. Thus, the power of genetics can be brought to bear on problems of cell function.
Differential chemical analyses of gene expression and function require tools that can resolve the complex mixture of molecules in a cell, quantify them and identify them, even when present in trace amounts. The current tools of analytical chemistry for this purpose are presently limited in each of these areas. One popular biomolecular separation method is gel electrophoresis. Frequently, a first separation of proteins by isoelectric focusing in a gel is coupled with a second separation by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The result is a map that resolves proteins according to the dimensions of isoelectric point (net charge) and size (i.e., mass). Although useful, this method is limited in several ways. First, the method provides information only about two characteristics of a biomolecule-mass and isoelectric point (“pI”). Second, the resolution power in each of the dimensions is limited by the resolving power of the gel. For example, molecules whose mass differ by less than about 5% or less than about 0.5 pI are often difficult to resolve. Third, gels have limited loading capacity, and thus limited sensitivity; one often cannot detect biomolecules that are expressed in small quantities. Fourth, small proteins and peptides with a molecular mass below about 10-20 kDa are not observed.
The use of functionalized chips is replacing gels as the method of choice for bioassays. Efforts to improved the sensitivity of assays have resulted in a number of chip designs. For example, a specific binding assay device, which comprises multilayer analytical materials is known (see, for example, EP 51183, EP 66648, DE 3227474 and EP 236768). other multilayer chips are set forth in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,839,278 and 4,356,149.
An effective chip for bioassay applications must have adequate capacity to immobilize a sufficient amount of an analyte from relevant samples in order to provide a suitable signal when subjected to detection (e.g., mass spectroscopy analysis). Suitable chips must also provide a highly reproducible surface in order to be gainfully applied to profiling experiments, particularly in assay formats in which the sample and the control must be analyzed on separate adjacent chip surfaces. Chips that are not based on a highly reproducible surface chemistry result in significant errors when undertaking assays (e.g., profiling comparisons).
In general, there has been difficulty in producing chips that include and adsorbent layer, which is both water-swellable and sufficiently hydrophobic to interact with an immobilize an analyte. Polymeric hydrogels have long been recognized to swell in water, and they have been utilized successfully in certain chip formats.
There presently is a need to develop chips that are capable of immobilizing small amounts of analyte and analytes that are only weakly immobilized by the adsorbent layers of presently available chip formats. A promising approach to achieving enhanced immobilization of analytes by an adsorbent film consists of varying the hydrophobicity of a water-swellable polymer, such as a hydrogel, used as the adsorbent layer.
Water-swellable hydrogels based on repeating hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups are generally known in the art. For example, Reich et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,962,620) describe a hydrogel that is assembled from an alkylene glycol, a hydrophobic diol, a hydrophilic diol and a diisocyanate and water. The hydrogel is a polyuretheane having high slip, Shore A Hardness values, wet tensile strength and tear strength. The polyurethane is disclosed as being of use in catheters, shaving products, synthetic valves, veins and arteries, stents, ports, shunts and coatings.
Shah (U.S. Pat. No. 4,693887) has described a hydrogel that includes separated hydrophilic and hydrophobic microphases for use as a drug delivery vehicle. The hydrogel compositions are blends of either a water-soluble homopolymer of N-vinyl lactam, or a water-soluble copolymer of an N-vinyl lactam with 1 to 90 mole percent of copolymerizable monomer containing ethylenic unsaturation, and a water-insoluble copolymer. The polymers are not cross-linked.
Pathak et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,201,065) disclose gel-forming macromers that include at least four polymeric blocks. At least two of the polymeric blocks are hydrophobic and at least one is hydrophilic. The gels include a cross-linker.
Good and Mueller (U.S. Pat. No. 4,277,582) disclose a two-component hydrogel system composed of a macromer, such as polyalkylene oxide, having reactive terminal vinyl groups, crosslinked polymers and copolymers of hydrophilic monomers, such as hydroxyethyl methacrylate, vinyl pyrrolidone, etc. The authors have described the use of these two-component hydrogels as carriers for controlled delivery of pharmaceutically active drugs or agents.
Rich et al. (WO 00/66265, Nov. 9, 2000) disclose probes for a gas phase ion spectrometer. The probes comprise a substrate having a surface and a hydrogel material on the surface. The hydrogel material is crosslinked and comprises binding functionalities for binding with an analyte detectable by the gas phase ion spectrometer.
There presently is a tremendous need for chips that provide reproducible results from assay to assay, which are easy to use, and provide quantitative data in multi-analyte systems. Moreover, to become widely accepted, the chips should be inexpensive to make, and to use for the detection of analytes. The availability of a chip having the above-described characteristics would significantly affect research, individual point of care situations (doctor's office, emergency room, out in the field, etc.), and high throughput testing applications. The present invention provides chips having these and other desirable characteristics